We studied biofilm formation on stainless steel occurring in a drinking water distribution system which operated in parallel at 20 and 37 degrees C, in order to focus on the effect of temperature rather than on other operational and water quality parameters. A surface conditioning step was followed as a function of time on this material until adhesion of bacterial colonies by using microscopic methods: scanning electron microscopy (SEM) and atomic force microscopy (AFM); a spectroscopic method: polarization modulation infrared reflection absorption spectroscopy (PM-IRRAS), and an electrochemical method: rotating disk electrode (RDE). Correlations between surface analysis, the duration of immersion of the sample and the influence of temperature have been identified clearly before bacterial adhesion. In cold water, these results showed an initial conditioning step of surface occurring during the first 8 days, with detection of superficial acidic functions grafted on surface, until adsorption of proteins. After 12 days, formation of independent bacteria microcolonies, reaching 2-3 mu m in length was observed. In tepid water, the first step was reduced to 2 days during which carbonates, acidic functions, and proteins were detected. After 90 days, the biofilm entered in a stable population state, which appeared as a bacteria rich film. including possibly Legionella. The spatial variation of the biofilm was limited as deduced from the thickness determination (about 4 mu m for 3-month period), using a RDE. The combination of these different techniques confirms successive steps for biofilm formation on stainless steel in a tap water. Then, we scrutinized the external near environment of bacteria including extracellular polymeric substances (EPS) and then further characterize the morphology of dominant bacteria (shape, size, flagellum) on gold substrate by AFM in air. (c) 2008 Elsevier Ltd. All rights reserved.