In the electrophotographic process, charged toner particles are transferred from the bulk to the photoreceptor drum and from there to the paper. In high performance printing systems, more than 1000 pages/min are printed, equivalent to the transfer of more than 10(10) particles/min. The key to understand and to improve the printing system is particle-particle and particle-substrate interactions, respectively. We study the adhesion forces by means of atomic force microscopy (AFM) measurements complemented by centrifugal detachment measurements in an ultracentrifuge. The interpretation of AFM measurements requires careful calibration of the used cantilevers together with a sound statistical analysis. Particle charges have been determined from force-displacement curves. Silicon wafers, polished and PVD-coated aluminum substrates with tailored roughness are chosen as model materials. Spherical, smooth polystyrene and specially prepared alumina particles as well as rugged toner particles of irregular shape are investigated. We proceed from well-defined model systems (flat smooth substrate interacting with spherical particles) to technical systems where rugged particles adhere to rough substrates. The adhesion forces consist of electrostatic and of non-clectrostatic (e.g. van der Waals forces) components. We show how the influence of electrostatic forces relative to the van der Waals forces can be controlled. (C) 2003 Elsevier B.V. All rights reserved.