화학공학소재연구정보센터
홈 로그인 로그아웃 연락처 사이트맵
Journal of Industrial and Engineering Chemistry, Vol.20, No.4, 1171-1185, July, 2014
DOI10.1016/j.jiec.2013.08.028  Export Citation
Synthesis and characterization of graphene and carbon nanotubes: A review on the past and recent developments
Wei-Wen Liu†, Siang-Piao Chai1, Abdul Rahman Mohamed2, and U. Hashim
  • Institute of Nano Electronic Engineering (INEE), Universiti Malaysia Perlis (UniMAP), 01000 Kangar, Perlis, Malaysia
  • 1School of Engineering, Monash University, Jalan Lagoon Selatan, 46150 Bandar Sunway, Selangor, Malaysia
  • 2School of Chemical Engineering, Engineering Campus, Universiti Sains Malaysia, 14300 Nibong Tebal, Seberang Perai Selatan, P. Pinang, Malaysia
E-mail:
Carbon nanotubes (CNTs) and graphene have built broad interest in most areas of science and engineering because of their extraordinary physical, mechanical, thermal and optical properties. Graphene is a two-dimensional one-atom-thick planar sheet of sp2-bonded carbon atoms while CNTs are a cylindrical nanostructure which composed entirely of sp2-bonded carbon atoms as well. This review presents and discusses the past and current advancement of synthesis and characterization of graphene and CNTs. The review also concludes with a brief summary and an outlook on the challenges and future prospects in the growth of graphene and CNTs.
Keywords:Graphene;Carbon nanotubes;Reduced graphene oxide;Graphene oxide
  1. Shang NG, Papakonstantinou P, McMullan M, Chu M, Stamboulis A, Potenza A, Dhesi SS, Marchetto H, Adv. Funct. Mater., 18(21), 3506 (2008)
  2. Singh V, Joung D, Zhai L, Das S, Khondaker SI, Seal S, Prog. Mater. Sci., 56(8), 1178 (2011)
  3. Geim AK, Novoselov KS, Nat. Mater., 6(3), 183 (2007)
  4. Geim AK, Science, 324, 1530 (2009)
  5. Iijima S, Nature, 354, 56 (1991)
  6. Dasgupta K, Joshi JB, Banerjee S, Chem. Eng. J., 171(3), 841 (2011)
  7. Pumera M, Chem. Rec., 9, 211 (2009)
  8. Liang M, Zhi L, J. Mater. Chem., 19, 5871 (2009)
  9. Yang W, Ratinac KR, Ringer SP, Thordarson P, Gooding JJ, Braet F, Angew. Chem.-Int. Edit., 49, 2114 (2010)
  10. Shao Y, Wang J, Wu H, Liu J, Aksay IA, Lin Y, Electro, 22, 1027 (2010)
  11. Pumera M, Chem. Eur. J., 15, 4970 (2009)
  12. Harris PJF, Carbon Nanotubes and Related Structures, Cambridge University Press, Cambridge, UK, 1999.
  13. Saito R, Dresselhaus G, Dresselhaus MS, Physical Properties of Carbon Nanotubes, Imperial College Press, UK, 1998.
  14. Ishigami M, Cumings J, Zettl A, Chen S, Chem. Phys. Lett., 319(5-6), 457 (2000)
  15. Sano N, Wang H, Chhowalla M, Alexandru I, Amaratunga GA, Nature, 414, 506 (2001)
  16. Zhu HW, Li XS, Jiang B, Xu CL, Zhu YF, Wu DH, Chen XH, Chem. Phys. Lett., 366(5-6), 664 (2002)
  17. Lange H, Sioda M, Huczko A, Zhu YQ, Kroto HW, Walton DRM, Carbon, 41, 1617 (2003)
  18. Antisari MV, Marazzi R, Krsmanovic R, Carbon, 41, 2393 (2003)
  19. Shi ZJ, Lian YF, Liao FH, Zhou XH, Gu ZN, Zhang Y, Iijima S, Li HD, Yue KT, Zhang SL, J. Phys. Chem. Solids, 61, 1031 (2000)
  20. Shi ZJ, Lian YF, Liao FH, Zhou XH, Gu ZN, Zhang Y, Iijima S, Li HD, Yue KT, Zhang SL, Carbon, 37, 1449 (1999)
  21. Saito Y, Kawabata K, Okuda M, J. Phys. Chem., 99, 16073 (1995)
  22. He DL, Zhao TK, Liu YN, Zhu JW, Yu G, Ge LL, Diam. Relat. Mat., 16, 1722 (2007)
  23. Ando Y, Zhao X, Hirahara K, Suenaga K, Bandow S, Iijima S, Chem. Phys. Lett., 323(5-6), 580 (2000)
  24. Su YJ, Zhou P, Zhao J, Yang Z, Zhang YF, Mater. Res. Bull., 48(9), 3232 (2013)
  25. Thess A, Lee R, Nikolaev P, Dai HJ, Petit P, Robert J, Xu CH, Lee YH, Kim SG, Rinzler AG, Colbert DT, Scuseria GE, Tomanek D, Fischer JE, Smalley RE, Science, 273(5274), 483 (1996)
  26. Aissa B, Therriault D, El Khakani MA, Carbon, 49, 2795 (2011)
  27. Kokai F, Nozaki I, Okada T, Koshio A, Kuzumaki T, Carbon, 49, 1173 (2011)
  28. Hu SL, Yang JL, Liu W, Dong YG, Cao SR, Carbon, 49, 1502 (2011)
  29. Sheng ZM, Wang JN, Adv. Mater., 20(5), 1071 (2008)
  30. Compagnini G, Sinatra M, Russo P, Messina GC, Puglisi O, Scalese S, Carbon, 50, 2347 (2012)
  31. Schauerman CM, Alvarenga J, Landi BJ, Cress CD, Raffaelle RP, Carbon, 47, 2431 (2009)
  32. Qian M, Zhou YS, Gao Y, Park JB, T.F F., Huang SM, Sun Z, Jiang L, Lu YF, Carbon, 49, 5117 (2011)
  33. Conway NMJ, Ferrari AC, Flewitt AJ, Robertson J, Milne WI, Tagliaferro A, et al., Diam. Relat. Mat., 9, 765 (2000)
  34. Cappelli E, Orlando S, Mattei G, Scilletta C, Corticelli F, Ascarelli P, Appl. Phys. A-Mater. Sci. Process., 79, 2063 (2004)
  35. Little RB, J. Cluster Sci., 14, 135 (2003)
  36. Li Q, Yan H, Zhang J, Liu Z, Carbon, 42, 829 (2004)
  37. Moisala A, Nasibulin AG, Kauppinen EI, J. Phys. Condens. Matter, 15, S3011 (2003)
  38. Dupuis AC, Prog. Mater. Sci., 50(8), 929 (2005)
  39. Dai H, Acc. Chem. Res., 35, 1035 (2002)
  40. Takagi D, Hibino H, Suzuki S, Kobayashi Y, Homma Y, Nano Lett., 7, 2272 (2007)
  41. Liu H, Takagi D, Ohno H, Chiashi S, Chokan T, Homma Y, Appl. Phys. Express, 1, 014001 (2008)
  42. Liu H, Takagi D, Chiashi S, Chokan T, Homma Y, J. Nanosci. Nanotechnol., 10, 4068 (2010)
  43. Liu H, Takagi D, Chiashi S, Homma Y, Carbon, 48, 114 (2010)
  44. Huang SM, Cai QR, Chen JY, Qian Y, Zhang LJ, J. Am. Chem. Soc., 131(6), 2094 (2009)
  45. Liu BL, Ren WC, Gao LB, Li SS, Pei SF, Liu C, Jiang CB, Cheng HM, J. Am. Chem. Soc., 131(6), 2082 (2009)
  46. Liu BL, Tang DM, Sun CH, Liu C, Ren WC, Li F, Yu WJ, Yin LC, Zhang LL, Jiang CB, Cheng HM, J. Am. Chem. Soc., 133(2), 197 (2011)
  47. Steiner SA, Baumann TF, Bayer BC, Blume R, Worsley MA, MoberlyChan WJ, Shaw EL, Schlogl R, Hart AJ, Hofmann S, Wardle BL, J. Am. Chem. Soc., 131(34), 12144 (2009)
  48. Lin JH, Chen CS, Rummeli MH, Bachmatiuk A, Zeng ZY, Ma HL, Buchner B, Chen HW, Chem. Mater., 23, 1637 (2011)
  49. Xu XJ, Huang SM, Hu YL, Lu JD, Yang Z, Mater. Chem. Phys., 133(1), 95 (2012)
  50. Qiu H, Yang G, Zhao B, Yang J, Carbon, 53, 137 (2013)
  51. Varshney D, Sumant AV, Weiner BR, Morell G, Diam. Relat. Mat., 30, 42 (2012)
  52. Qi X, Ding Q, Zhang H, Zhong W, Au C, Du Y, Mater. Lett., 81, 135 (2012)
  53. Tan LL, Chai SP, Mohamed AR, Appl. Surf. Sci., 258(15), 5774 (2012)
  54. Yang X, Shi C, Liu E, He C, Du X, Li J, Zhao N, Mater. Lett., 72, 164 (2012)
  55. Szabo A, Fonseca A, Biro LP, Konya Z, Kiricsi I, Volodin A, Van Haesendonck C, Nagy JB, Nanopages, 1, 263 (2006)
  56. Luo T, Liu J, Chen L, Zhang S, Qian Y, Carbon, 43, 755 (2005)
  57. Wang XH, Hu Z, Wu Q, Chen X, Chen Y, Thin Solid Films, 390(1-2), 130 (2001)
  58. Hou HQ, Jun Z, Weller F, Greiner A, Chem. Mater., 15, 3170 (2003)
  59. Amelinckx S, Zhang XB, Bernaerts D, Zhang XF, Ivanov V, Nagy JB, Science, 265(5172), 635 (1994)
  60. Zhang XB, Zhang XF, Bernaerts D, Van Tendeloo G, Amelinckx S, Van Landuyt J, Ivanov V, Nagy JB, Lambin P, Lucas AA, Europhys. Lett., 27, 141 (1994)
  61. Liu J, Harris AT, J. Nanopart. Res., 12, 645 (2010)
  62. Cheng JP, Zhang XB, Tu H, Tao XY, Ye Y, Liu F, Mater. Chem. Phys., 95(1), 12 (2006)
  63. Qi X, Zhang W, Deng Y, Au C, Du Y, Carbon, 48, 365 (2010)
  64. Csato A, Szabo A, Fonseca A, Vuono D, Konya Z, Volodin A, Van Haesendonck C, Biro LP, Giordano G, Nagy JB, Catal. Today, 181(1), 33 (2012)
  65. Yang W, Sun WJ, Chu W, Jiang CF, Wen J, Chin. Chem. Lett., 23, 363 (2012)
  66. Li Y, Wang H, Wang G, Gao J, Chem. Eng. J., 211-212, 255 (2012)
  67. Zhu JT, Jia JC, Kwong FL, Ng DHL, Tjong SC, Biomass Bioenerg., 36, 12 (2012)
  68. Igarashi H, Murakami H, Murakami Y, Maruyama S, Nakashima N, Chem. Phys. Lett., 392(4-6), 529 (2004)
  69. Schmidt I, Boisen A, Gustavsson E, Stahl K, Pehrson S, Dahl S, Carlsson A, Jacobsen CJH, Chem. Mater., 13, 4416 (2001)
  70. Cao JM, Appl. Surf. Sci., 253(5), 2460 (2006)
  71. Sahoo RK, Daramalla V, Jacob C, Mater. Sci. Eng. B-Solid State Mater. Adv. Technol., 177, 79 (2012)
  72. Ohno H, Takagi D, Yamada K, Chiashi S, Tokura A, Homma Y, Jpn. J. Appl. Phys., 47, 1956 (2008)
  73. Hsieh CT, Lin YT, Lin JY, Wei JL, Mater. Chem. Phys., 114(2-3), 702 (2009)
  74. Xiong GY, Wang DZ, Ren ZF, Carbon, 44, 969 (2006)
  75. Gournis D, Karakassides MA, Bakas T, Boukos N, Petridis D, Carbon, 40, 2641 (2002)
  76. Zhang WD, Phang IY, Liu TX, Adv. Mater., 18(1), 73 (2006)
  77. Destree A, Long GJ, Vatovez B, Grandjean F, Fonseca A, Nagy JB, Fransolet AM, J. Mater. Sci., 42(20), 8671 (2007)
  78. Zhao MQ, Zhang Q, Huang JQ, Nie JQ, Wei F, ChemSusChem, 3, 453 (2008)
  79. Chen J, Gao F, Zhang L, Huang S, Mater. Lett., 63, 721 (2009)
  80. Kawasaki S, Shinoda M, Shimada T, Okino F, Touhara H, Carbon, 44, 2139 (2006)
  81. Moura FCC, Lago RM, Appl. Catal. B: Environ., 90(3-4), 436 (2009)
  82. Kadlecikova M, Breza J, Jesenak K, Pastorkova K, Luptakova V, Kolmacka M, Vojackova A, Michalka M, Vavra I, Krizanova Z, Appl. Surf. Sci., 254(16), 5073 (2008)
  83. Novoselov KS, Geim AK, Morozov SV, Jiang D, Zhang Y, Dubonos SV, Grigorieva IV, Firso AA, Science, 306, 666 (2004)
  84. Novoselov KS, Jiang D, Schedin F, Booth TJ, Khotkevich VV, Morozov SV, Geim AK, PNAS, 102, 10451 (2005)
  85. Stankovich S, Dikin DA, Piner RD, Kohlhaas KA, Kleinhammes A, Jia Y, Wu Y, Nguyen ST, Ruoff RS, Carbon, 45, 1558 (2007)
  86. Eda G, Fanchini G, Chhowalla M, Nat. Nanotechnol., 3(5), 270 (2008)
  87. Becerril HA, Man J, Liu Z, Stoltenberg RM, Bao Z, Chen Y, ACS Nano, 2, 463 (2008)
  88. Blake P, Brimicombe PD, Nair RR, Booth TJ, Jiang D, Schedin F, Ponomarenko LA, Morozov SV, Gleeson HF, Hill EW, Geim AK, Novoselov KS, Nano Lett., 8, 1704 (2008)
  89. Hernandez Y, Nicolosi V, Lotya M, Blighe FM, Sun ZY, De S, McGovern IT, Holland B, Byrne M, Gun'ko YK, Boland JJ, Niraj P, Duesberg G, Krishnamurthy S, Goodhue R, Hutchison J, Scardaci V, Ferrari AC, Coleman JN, Nat. Nanotechnol., 3(9), 563 (2008)
  90. Lotya M, Hernandez Y, King PJ, Smith RJ, Nicolosi V, Karlsson LS, Blighe FM, De S, Wang ZM, McGovern IT, Duesberg GS, Coleman JN, J. Am. Chem. Soc., 131(10), 3611 (2009)
  91. Green AA, Hersam MC, Nano Lett., 9, 4031 (2009)
  92. Li D, Muller MB, Gilje S, Kaner RB, Wallace GG, Nat. Nanotechnol., 3(2), 101 (2008)
  93. Wang GX, Yang J, Park J, Gou XL, Wang B, Liu H, Yao J, J. Phys. Chem. C, 112, 8192 (2008)
  94. Wang HL, Robinson JT, Li XL, Dai HJ, J. Am. Chem. Soc., 131(29), 9910 (2009)
  95. Becerril HA, Mao J, Liu Z, Stoltenberg RM, Bao Z, Chen Y, ACS Nano, 2, 463 (2008)
  96. Shin HJ, Kim KK, Benayad A, Yoon SM, Park HK, Jung IS, Jin MH, Jeong HK, Kim JM, Choi JY, Lee YH, Adv. Funct. Mater., 19(12), 1987 (2009)
  97. Gao W, Alemany LB, Ci L, Ajayan PM, Nat. Chem., 1, 403 (2009)
  98. Pei S, Zhao J, Du J, Ren W, Cheng HM, Carbon, 48, 4466 (2010)
  99. Loh KP, Bao Q, Eda G, Chhowalla M, Nat. Chem., 2, 1015 (2010)
  100. Zhang J, Yang H, Shen G, Cheng P, Zhang J, Guo S, Chem. Commun., 46, 1112 (2010)
  101. Gao J, Liu F, Liu Y, Ma N, Wang Z, Zhang X, Chem. Mater., 22, 2213 (2010)
  102. Fernandez-Merino MJ, Guardia L, Paredes JI, Rodil SV, Fernandez PS, Alonso AM, J. Phys. Chem. C, 114, 6426 (2010)
  103. Fan Z, Wang K, Wei T, Yan J, Song L, Shao B, Carbon, 48, 1686 (2010)
  104. Zhu C, Guo S, Fang Y, Dong S, ACS Nano, 4, 2429 (2010)
  105. Chen S, Cai W, Piner RD, Suk JW, Wu Y, Ren Y, Kang Y, Ruoff RS, Nano Lett., 11, 3519 (2011)
  106. Wang Y, Shi Z, Yin J, ACS Appl. Mater. Interfaces, 3, 1127 (2011)
  107. Paredes JI, Villar-Rodil S, Martinez-Alonso A, Tascon JMD, Langmuir, 24(19), 10560 (2008)
  108. Tanizawa Y, Okamoto Y, Tsuzuki K, Nagao Y, Yoshida N, Tero R, Iwasa S, Hiraishi A, Suda Y, Takikawa H, Numano R, Okada H, Ishikawa R, Sandhu A, J. Phys. Conf. Ser., 352, 012011 (2012)
  109. Gurunathan S, Han JW, Eppakayala V, Kim JH, Colloids Surf. B: Biointerfaces, 102, 772 (2013)
  110. Kumari P, Chauhan SM, Chem. Commun., 42, 6397 (2009)
  111. Zhuo Q, Gao J, Peng M, Bai L, Deng J, Xia Y, Ma Y, Zhong J, Sun X, Carbon, 52, 559 (2013)
  112. Chatenet M, Micoud F, Roche I, Chainet E, Electrochim. Acta, 51(25), 5459 (2006)
  113. May JW, Surf. Sci., 17, 267 (1969)
  114. Shelton JC, Patil HR, Blakely JM, Surf. Sci., 43, 493 (1974)
  115. Eizenberg M, Blakely JM, Surf. Sci., 82, 228 (1979)
  116. Somani PR, Somani SP, Umeno M, Chem. Phys. Lett., 430(1-3), 56 (2006)
  117. Cao H, Yu Q, Colby R, Pandey D, Park CS, Lian J, Zemlyanov D, Childres I, Drachev V, Stach EA, Hussain M, Li H, Pei SS, Chen YP, J. Appl. Phys., 107, 044310 (2010)
  118. Bhaviripudi S, Jia X, Dresselhaus MS, Kong J, Nano Lett., 10, 4128 (2010)
  119. Kim KS, Zhao Y, Jang H, Lee SY, Kim JM, Kim KS, Ahn JH, Kim P, Choi JY, Hong BH, Nature, 457, 706 (2009)
  120. Li X, Cai W, An J, Kim S, Nah J, Yang D, Piner R, Velamakanni A, Jung I, Tutuc E, Banerjee SK, Colombo L, Ruoff RS, Science, 324, 1312 (2009)
  121. Chae SJ, Gunes F, Kim KK, Kim ES, Han GH, Kim SM, Shin HJ, Yoon SM, Choi JY, Park MH, Yang CW, Pribat D, Lee YH, Adv. Mater., 21(22), 2328 (2009)
  122. Lee S, Lee K, Zhong Z, Nano Lett., 10, 4702 (2010)
  123. Lee Y, Bae S, Jang H, Jang S, Zhu SE, Sim SH, Song YI, Hong BH, Ahn JH, Nano Lett., 10, 490 (2010)
  124. Reina A, Jia X, Ho J, Nezich D, Son H, Bulovic V, Dresselhaus MS, Kong J, Nano Lett., 9, 30 (2008)
  125. Wang JJ, Zhu MY, Outlaw RA, Zhao X, Manos DM, Holoway BC, Appl. Phys. Lett., 85, 1265 (2004)
  126. Wang JJ, Zhu MY, Outlaw RA, Zhao X, Manos DM, Holoway BC, Carbon, 42, 2867 (2004)
  127. Malesevic A, Vitchev R, Schouteden K, Volodin A, Zhang L, Tendeloo GV, Vanhulsel A, Haesendonck CV, Nanotechnology, 19, 305604 (2008)
  128. Vitchev R, Malesevic A, Petrov RH, Kemps R, Mertens M, Vanhulsel A, Haesendonck CV, Nanotechnology, 21, 095602 (2010)
  129. Zhu M, Wang J, Holoway BC, Outlaw RA, Zhao X, Hou K, Shutthanandan V, Manos DM, Carbon, 45, 2229 (2007)
  130. Lam LV, Kimz ET, J. Electrochem. Soc., 159(4), K93 (2012)
  131. Nandamuri G, Roumimov S, Solanki R, Appl. Phys. Lett., 96, 154101 (2010)
  132. Nang LV, Kim ET, Mater. Lett., 92, 437 (2013)
  133. Forbeaux I, Themlin JM, Debever JM, Phys. Rev. B, 58, 16396 (1998)
  134. Hass J, de Heer WA, Conrad EH, J. Phys. Condens. Matter, 20, 323202 (2008)
  135. de Heer WA, Berger C, Wu X, First PN, Conrad EH, Li X, Li T, Sprinkle M, Hass J, Sadowski ML, Potemski M, Martinez G, Solid State Commun., 143, 92 (2007)
  136. Varchon F, Feng R, Hass J, Li X, Nguyen BN, Naud C, Mallet P, Veuillen JY, Berger, Conrad EH, Magaud L, Phys. Rev. Lett., 99, 126805 (2007)
  137. Penuelas J, Ouerghi A, Lucot D, David C, Gierak J, Szwarckopt HE, Vignolle CA, Phys. Rev. B, 79, 033408 (2009)
  138. Tedesco JT, Jernigan GG, Culbertson JC, Hite JK, Yang Y, Daniels KM, Ward RLM, Eddy JCR, Robinson JA, Trumbull KA, Wetherington MT, Campbell PM, Gaskill DK, Appl. Phys. Lett., 96, 222103 (2010)
  139. Emtsev KV, Bostwick A, Horn K, Jobst J, Kellogg GL, Ley L, McChesney JL, Ohta T, Reshanov SA, Rohrl J, Rotenberg E, Schmid AK, Waldmann D, Weber HB, Seyller T, Nat. Mater., 8(3), 203 (2009)
  140. Sprinkle M, Siegel D, Yu Y, Hicks J, Tejeda A, Ibrahimi AT, Le Fevre P, Bertran F, Vizzini S, Enriquez H, Chiang S, Soukiassian P, Berger C, de Heer WA, Lanzara A, Conrad EH, Phys. Rev. Lett., 103, 226803 (2009)
  141. Vazquez de Parga L, Calleja F, Borca B, Passeggi MCG, Hinarejos JJ, Guinea F, Miranda R, Phys. Rev. Lett., 100, 056807 (2008)
  142. Sutter PW, Flege JI, Sutter EA, Nat. Mater., 7(5), 406 (2008)
  143. Wintterlin J, Bocquet ML, Surf. Sci., 603, 1841 (2009)
  144. Zhang ZX, Sun ZZ, Yao J, Kosynkin DV, Tour JM, J. Am. Chem. Soc., 131(37), 13460 (2009)
  145. Dhakate R, Chauhan N, Sharma S, Mathur RB, Carbon, 49, 4170 (2011)
  146. Higginbotham AL, Kosynkin DV, Sinitskii A, Sun Z, Tour JM, ACS Nano, 4, 2059 (2010)
  147. Jiao L, Zhang L, Wang X, Diankov G, Dai H, Nature, 458, 877 (2009)
  148. Kosynkin DV, Higginbotham AL, Sinitskii A, Lomeda JR, Dimiev A, Price BK, Tour JM, Nature, 458, 872 (2009)
  149. Mohammadi S, Kolahdouz Z, Darbari S, Mohajerzadeh S, Masoumi N, Carbon, 52, 451 (2013)
  150. Chen J, Chen L, Zhang Z, Li J, Wang L, Jiang W, Carbon, 50, 1934 (2012)
  151. Gedanken A, Ultrason. Sonochem., 11, 47 (2004)
  152. Veerapandian M, Subbiah R, Lim GS, Park SH, Yun K, Lee MH, Langmuir, 27(14), 8934 (2011)
  153. Deng C, Hub H, Ge X, Han C, Zhao D, Shao G, Ultrason. Sonochem., 18, 932 (2011)
  154. Pinjari DV, Pandit AB, Ultrason. Sonochem., 18, 1118 (2011)
  155. Safarifard V, Morsali A, Ultrason. Sonochem., 19, 823 (2012)
  156. Ramadoss A, Kim SJ, J. Alloy. Compd., 544, 115 (2012)
  157. Krishnamoorthy K, Kim GS, Kim SJ, Ultrason. Sonochem., 20, 644 (2013)
  158. Zhang Y, Li D, Tan X, Zhang B, Ruan X, Liu H, Pan C, Liao L, Zhai T, Bando Y, Chen S, Cai W, Ruoff RS, Carbon, 54, 143 (2013)
  159. Williams G, Seger B, Kamat PV, ACS Nano, 2, 1487 (2008)
  160. Akhavan O, Ghaderi E, J. Phys. Chem. C, 113, 20214 (2009)
  161. Cote LJ, Cruz-Silva R, Huang JX, J. Am. Chem. Soc., 131(31), 11027 (2009)
  162. Zhou Y, Bao QL, Varghese B, Tang LAL, Tan CK, Sow CH, Loh KP, Adv. Mater., 22(1), 67 (2010)
  163. Abdelsayed V, Moussa S, Hassan HM, Aluri HS, Collinson MM, El-Shall MS, J. Phys. Chem. Lett., 1, 2804 (2010)
  164. Huang L, Liu Y, Ji LC, Xie YQ, Wang T, Shi WZ, Carbon, 49, 2431 (2011)
  165. Chang HW, Tsai YC, Cheng CW, Lin CY, Wu PH, Electrochem. Commun., 23, 37 (2012)
  166. Chichkov BN, Momma C, Nolte S, von Alvensleben F, Tunnermann A, Appl. Phys. A-Mater. Sci. Process., 63, 109 (1996)
  167. Sokolov DA, Shepperd KR, Orlando TM, J. Phys. Chem. Lett., 1, 2633 (2010)
  168. Trusovas R, Ratautas K, Raciukaitis G, Barkauskas J, Stankeviciene I, Niaura G, Mazeikiene R, Carbon, 52, 574 (2013)
  169. Dresselhaus MS, Dresselhaus G, Saito R, Jorio A, Phys. Rep., 409, 47 (2005)
  170. Dresselhaus MS, Dresselhaus G, Jorio A, Souza Filho AG, Saito R, Carbon, 40, 2043 (2002)
  171. Pimenta MA, Jorio A, Brown SDM, Souza Filho AG, Dresselhaus G, Hafner JH, Lieber CM, Saito R, Dresselhaus MS, Phys. Rev. B, 64, 041401 (2001)
  172. Qian W, Liu T, Wei F, Yuan H, Carbon, 41, 1851 (2003)
  173. Athalin H, Lefrant S, J. Raman Spectrosc., 36, 400 (2005)
  174. Liu WW, Aziz A, Chai SP, Tye CT, Mohamed AR, Nano:Brief Rep., 4, 77 (2009)
  175. Arepalli S, Nikolaev P, Gorelik O, Hadjiev VG, Holmes W, Files B, Yowell L, Carbon, 42, 1783 (2004)
  176. Alvarez WE, Kitiyanan B, Borgna A, Resasco DE, Carbon, 39, 547 (2001)
  177. Rinzler AG, Liu J, Dai H, Nikolaev P, Huffman CB, Rodriguez-Maca FJ, Boul PJ, Lu AH, Heymann D, Colbert DT, Lee RS, Fischer JE, Rao AM, Eklund PC, Smalley RE, Appl. Phys. A-Mater. Sci. Process., 67, 29 (1998)
  178. Bahr JL, Yang JP, Kosynkin DV, Bronikowski MJ, Smalley RE, Tour JM, J. Am. Chem. Soc., 123(27), 6536 (2001)
  179. Liu WW, Aziz A, Chai SP, Mohamed AR, Tye CT, New Carbon Mater., 26, 255 (2011)
  180. Chescoe D, Peterhew PJ, The Operation of Transmission and Scanning Electron Microscopes, Oxford University Press, UK, 1990.
  181. Goldstein JI, Newbury DE, Echlin P, Joy DC, Romig AD, Lyman CE, Fiori C, Lifshin E, Scanning Electron Microscopy and X-ray Microanalysis, Plenum Press, New York, 1992.
  182. Cao AY, Zhang XF, Xu CL, Wei BQ, Wu DH, Sol. Energy Mater. Sol. Cells, 70(4), 481 (2002)
  183. Agar AW, Alderson RH, Chescoe D, Principles and Practice Electron Microscope Operation, North-Holland Publishing Company, Amsterdam, 1974.
  184. Chai SP, Zein SHS, Mohamed AR, Appl. Catal. A: Gen., 326(2), 173 (2007)
  185. Chen L, Liu HT, Yang KL, Wang JK, Wang XL, Mater. Chem. Phys., 112(2), 407 (2008)
  186. Shukla S, Saxena S, Appl. Phys. Lett., 98, 073104 (2011)
  187. Lee DY, Khatun Z, Lee JH, Lee YK, In I, Biomacromolecules, 12(2), 336 (2011)
  188. Sun Z, Yan Z, Yao J, Beitler E, Zhu Y, Tour JM, Nature, 468, 549 (2010)
  189. Zhang HB, Zheng WG, Yan Q, Yang Y, Wang JW, Lu ZH, Ji GY, Yu ZZ, Polymer, 51(5), 1191 (2010)
  190. Wu P, Shao QA, Hu YJ, Jin JA, Yin YJ, Zhang H, Cai CX, Electrochim. Acta, 55(28), 8606 (2010)
  191. Paredes JI, Villar-Rodil S, Solis-Fernandez P, Martinez-Alonso A, Tascon JMD, Langmuir, 25(10), 5957 (2009)
  192. Lee C, Wei X, Kysar JW, Hone J, Science, 321, 385 (2008)
  193. Meyer JC, Geim AK, Katsnelson MI, Novoselov KS, Booth JS, Roth S, Nature, 446, 60 (2007)
  194. Meyer JC, Geim AK, Katsnelson MI, Novoselov KS, Obergfell D, Roth S, Girit C, Zettl A, Solid State Commun., 143, 101 (2007)
  195. Dato A, Radmilovic V, Lee Z, Phillips J, Frenklach M, Nano Lett., 8, 2012 (2008)
  196. Lomeda JR, Doyle CD, Kosynkin DV, Hwang WF, Tour JM, J. Am. Chem. Soc., 130(48), 16201 (2008)
  197. Kundin KN, Ozbas B, Schniepp HC, Prud’homme RK, Aksay IA, Car R, Nano Lett., 8, 36 (2008)
  198. Eklund PC, Holden JM, Jishi RA, Carbon, 33, 959 (1995)
  199. Li WZ, Zhang H, Wang CY, Zhang Y, Xu LW, Zhu K, Xie SS, Appl. Phys. Lett., 70, 2684 (1997)
  200. Wang YY, Ni ZH, Yu T, Shen ZX, Wang HM, Wu YH, Chen W, Wee ATS, J. Phys. Chem. C, 112, 10637 (2008)
  201. Ferrari AC, Meyer JC, Scardaci V, Casiraghi C, Lazzeri M, Mauri F, Piscanec S, Jiang D, Novoselov KS, Roth S, Geim AK, Phys. Rev. Lett., 97, 187401 (2006)
  202. Mattia D, Rossi MP, Kim BM, Korneva G, Bau HH, Gogotsi Y, J. Phys. Chem. B, 110(20), 9850 (2006)
  203. Childres I, Jauregui LA, Tian J, Chen YP, New J. Phys., 13, 025008 (2011)
  204. Ferrari AC, Solid State Commun., 143, 47 (2007)
  205. Tuinstra F, Koenig JL, J. Chem. Phys., 53, 1126 (1970)
  206. Lucchese MM, Stavale F, Ferreira EH, Vilani C, Moutinho MVO, Capaz RB, Achete CA, Jorio A, Carbon, 48, 1592 (2010)
  207. Saito R, Hofmann M, Dresselhaus G, Jorio A, Dresselhaus MS, Adv. Phys., 30, 413 (2011)
  208. Ferrari AC, Robertson J, Phys. Rev. B, 64, 075414 (2001)
  209. Ferrari AC, Robinson, Phys. Rev. B, 61, 14095 (2000)
  210. Ferreira EHM, Moutinho MVO, Stavale F, Lucchese MM, Capaz RB, Achete CA, Jorio A, Phys. Rev. B, 82, 125429 (2010)
  211. Cancado LG, Jorio A, Martins Ferreira EH, Stavale F, Achete CA, Capaz RB, Moutinho MVO, Lombardo A, Kulmala TS, Ferrari AC, Nano Lett., 11, 3190 (2011)